My thesis is undergoing heavy reorganization, and, in order to make this process go smoothly, my advisor had me write out what I want to say in each section. After writing it, I figured that it’s a good “sparknotes” version of my thesis. So, for those of you who are interested in what my thesis is about, but don’t feel like reading all 100+ pages of it, this is a pretty complete–though, i should warn you, it’s under-explained and slightly rough–summary.
Entire thing after the break:
Types of Comic Markets:
Comics as a creative entertainment good
Comics are an entertainment good, which means that there is a great deal of uncertainty regarding whether an individual comic will succeed or fail, moreso than most other goods. As a result, much of comics’ history involves catering to markets that they know will succeed. Comics as an entertainment good also are defined very much in relation to their substitutes, and the history of comics is very much a history of a cheap, disposable entertainment good in an era where cheap entertainment has become widespread.
Comics as a medium have the ability to render fantastical imagery, break the fourth wall, and be relatively inexpensive/easy to read. Comics, being an artform, have gotten better at doing these things as writers have pushed the boundaries of the comic medium. In terms of genre, Comics also have cornered the market in superhero books, due to various historical factors.. The most important factor, however, is that comics as entertainment have always been heavily tied to its distribution channel—from newspaper stands, to the direct market, to the mass market.
Comics as hedonic value:
Comics are suited to the creation of two types of hedonic value for consumers: escapism and role projection. In terms of role projection, comics as a medium help role projective hedonic behavior by allowing people to project themselves into the role of the character by using iconographic imagery. Also, comics are a “cool” medium in the sense that they require active participation by users. In terms of role projection, comics are often about adolescent power fantasies qua superheroes, and many characters are written to be relatable by their fanbase. (Kid sidekicks, marvel mutants, etc.)
In terms of escapism, comics have built up a huge mythology of continuity that allows for a “realer” universe to escape into. Furthermore, the fact that comics coming out of every week allows for a constant update of the universe, aiding their escapist quality. This escapist quality, however, often comes at the price of alienating new readers.
Comics as culture:
Comics culture has arisen organically by comic fans who wish to network with each other, finding manifestation in conventions, comic stores, mailing lists, and internet forums. Those in the culture engage in what sociologists call “cultural productivity” which is an enjoyable activity wherein one “produces” a culture. This productivity can be characterized by the creation of meanings (semiotic productivity) the sharing of meaning and affiliation (semiotic productivity) and the creation of new texts based on the originals (textual productivity). Comic book companies encourage various types of productivity in various ways, and fan engagement has only grown over the years to become a major part of the “comic book experience”. This fan engagement is not unique to comic books, but the effects it has had on the other facets of the industry are huge.
Comic as collectable:
Collecting is a phenomenon when individuals try and amass many different objects according to some set of criteria. Comics lend themselves to collectability because many people find themselves with a comic collection (a collection itself as a fundamentally different commodity than the individual comics) simply by reading the same comic month after month. Comic companies play into this market for collectability by offering rare variant covers or other gimmicks that enhance collectability.This collectability is closely linked to speculation, where people buy comics in hopes that they will sell for high prices to collectors in the future. Collecting has given rise to a variety of collector service industries that add parts to the comic network.
Comics as sites of intellectual property development:
Comics are valuable for the creation of licensors in both cross-media of adaptations and consumer products. Comic book characters—usually superheroes—are very popular with consumer product licensors, partially because each of these characters serve as a dominant archetype or metaphor that people easily identify with, partly because the particular aesthetics of comic characters (they, “pop”, so to speak) and, because of these characters’ status as cultural icons.
Comic IP’s—storylines, characters, concepts—are also adapted across media. Comic book IP’s are popular because creators of cross-media adaptations can mitigate the risk of a failure by utilizing an already popular character or concept that has proven itself in comic books. Furthermore, with the development of a “hit” driven entertainment industry, superheroes combination of ahistoricity and flexibility allow for easier creation of these cultural phenomena
A Brief History of Comic Books based on these characteristics.
The age system is primarily created by collectors who seek to classify comic books in terms of their general “eras.” The first age of comic books is the Platinum age, which lasted from 1930-1938. The earliest comic books, which were either reprints of old material or entirely new material, were solely entertainment. The first original comic book, Famous Funnies became a hit and spawned a number of imitators. Many of these comics relied on visual depiction of the lurid material of the pulps, and so, were able to establish themselves in a market niche. What’s more, because they were cheap (10 cents) in an era when money was tight (the great depression), they gained major popularity as a mass medium. Collectability, IP, Hedonic value, and culture were all nonexistent during this time.
The debut of Superman brought comics into the Golden age, which lasted from 1938 until the passing of the Comics code in 1954. Superman gave comics a new paradigm, as superheroes could be rendered in four color glory. DC, Marvel, and Fawcett all published comics aimed at young readers to fulfill fantasies—the most popular being not Superman, but Captain Marvel (who fulfilled the fantasy of instant adulthood). It should be noted, however, that while superheroes were popular, comic books aimed at children, especially those that licensed Disney characters, outsold superhero faire. World War II increased the popularity of superheroes (who became symbols of patriotism), but after the War, anxiety related to the postwar world found manifestation in the popular, but graphic and subversive crime and horror comics of the late 1940’s and 50’s. These comics ended up causing massive public outcry and leading to the passage of the comics code in 1954.
In terms of entertainment qualities comic books began to establish themselves in a variety of market niches: it was the exclusive realm of superheroes, yes, but it also served as inexpensive children’s entertainment, inexpensive soldiers’ entertainment (during the war), and the only place where lurid and graphic stories could be visually rendered. As the medium grew artistically, this entertainment value grew as well, with such artists as Jake Cole (plastic man) Will Eisner (the sprit) and Carl Banks (Donald Duck) pushed the boundaries of the medium.
However, entertainment was not the only market function that grew during the golden age. Because funny animal comics and superhero comics share the same artistic and narrative qualities, both can be characterized by the development of role-projective hedonic behavior. Comic books also began to have licensing potential, first in the realm of consumer products licensing (superman buttons, puzzles, etc.) and then cross media adaptation (superman appeared newspaper strip in 1939, radio in 1940, animated shorts 1941, filmed serial in 1948, a sequel in 1950 and the television series 1952, while Captain America appeared in a 1944 serial. A lot of these early cross media adaptations fed into licensing products from the start, creating an early close link between these two markets. At this time, comic culture was youth culture, but not a fan culture, so to speak. Also, comics were collectable in the sense that people accumulated them, but there was nothing resembling a collector’s market.
The Silver Age began with the passing of the Comics code, in 1954, but it really took off after the publication of Showcase #4 which brought back the Flash. After the comics code, DC heavily specialized in superheroes after realizing it could profitably publish stories in this genre. In 1961 Marvel comics published Fantastic Four, #1 and followed up with a variety of other superhero comics. Marvel, using sophisticated characterization and storytelling, appealed to teens and college aged readers, rather than children. Superheroes became the standard genre of the medium, as comics were still more suited to the telling of superhero stories than close entertainment substitutes (television in particular).
In terms of hedonic value, this shift towards more superheroes aimed at adolesents increased the role-projective aspects of the medium. What’s more, all Marvel’s characters existed in the same fictional universe, and often referred to other comics often, giving the impression of a coherent “world,” and thus helping escapist hedonic behavior. However, without a steady sales venue, continuity couldn’t be as much of a driving force in storytelling. This era also saw the rise of collectability, as collectors began searching out the back issues of characters from their youth, but without a standardized measure of comic book quality and prices, the hobby was a small part of the industry. The Silver age saw the beginnings of the comics culture of fandom, with self-published zines and, in the 60’s, the first comic conventions. Marvel, in particular, utilized this culture to market their products, and fans began to see themselves as being “comic readers” as an identity.
This era’s major mainstream cross-media adaptation, the Adam West Batman show, led to a resurgence in superhero’s popularity among mainstream audience. This era also saw recognition of the value of comic companies as owners of intellectual properties, as in 1969, DC merged with Warner Brothers. In terms of consumer product licensing, the first action figures based on comic books were created by the toy company Mego in 1971, and became popular instantly.
Following the Silver Age was The Bronze Age, which lasted from the early 1970’s to the mid 1980’s. The major shift during this time was the decline in newsstand distribution and the rise of direct market distribution, which greatly decreased the levels of uncertainty for publishers. The major creative shifts were a loosening of the comics code and the awarding of royalties for high sales to creative talent. These three shifts allowed for more adult subject matter, more complex plots, and a resurgence of superhero-like genres (barbarian, science fiction, horror). Writers began tackling more conmtemporary issues, such as drugs, and publishers began including more minority superheroes, and creators began utilizing more realistic art styles.
In terms of entertainment value, comics’ entertainment value fell relative to substitutes (which was one of the main reasons behind the direct market shift in the first place), but they were able to differentiate themselves entertainment-wise with “team books” (such as X-Men and Teen tians) featuring ensemble casts and soap opera storytelling styles difficult to replicate in other media. The direct market also led to the rise to comic shops (which was a major place for culture) and continuity (gave value to escapist hedonic behavior). Collectors became their own force in the industry, helping give rise to comic shops and conventions, and the new Overstreet Price Guide, first published in 1970, standardized the sale of back issues and helped collecting become a full blown market.
Cross media adaptations included the 1977 Spider-man syndicated newspaper strip, the Fantastic Four and Superfriends cartoons produced by Hannah Barbera, and Richard Donner’s Superman movie. In terms of the market for licensed consumer products: the growth of the direct market allowed for more niche-oriented consumer products to be marketed directly to comics fans, allowing for a proliferation of more “fan-oriented” consumer products.
From the Mid 1980’s to the early 2000’s are considered the Modern Age. The precise definition of the beginnings of the modern age is debated by comic historians, but it’s generally agreed on occurring the mid 1980’s, when a few major changes occurred in the comics industry. First, Marvel and DC realized they could make a lot of money with muti-part crossover events by publishing Secret Wars and Crisis on Infinite Earths, respectively. These crossovers required comic fans to buy every issue to get the “full story,” and became a way for comic companies to garuntee high sales. The second major event in the 1980’s was the publishing of Frank Miller’s The Dark Knight Returns and Alan Moore’s Watchmen, which began the standard of “grim and gritty” characters and stories. The last major shift was the desire for creative control by many writers, many of whom left Marvel to form Image comics, where they could publish their own stories and own their own IP. The mid 90’s also witnessed the distributor wars, when Marvel attempted to distribute their own books, leading to a huge shakeup in the distributor (and direct) market, ultimately ending with Diamond having the monopoly in direct market distribution.
This era was also characterized by two “boom and busts” in different market functions. The first was in IP creation, when the runaway success of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles led to a wave of cheaply printed black and white comics featuring similar characters. This bubble eventually popped, and in doing so, it turned off a lot of readers off from independent comic books. This IP bubble was followed up with the speculation boom of the 90’s, when the rising value the “collectors” prices of recent comics led to a speculation bubble that caused many comic shops to go out of business. Much of these blows to the comics industry led to a major contraction of the comics market and Marvel’s eventual bankruptcy in 1996. DC also faced declining sales, and the industry was essentially buoyed by a small group of comic fans and the value of its intellectual properties.
While their entertainment value received a bit of a boost with the more ‘realistic” depictions of superheroes, as time went on and comic companies realized they could either hype “big crossover” events or play up the speculative value of their comics, and thereby not have to bother with producing quality stories. Still, with more creative control being handed to talent, product lines began to diversify, with DC’s imprints Vertigo and other smaller publishers such as Image, Valiant Dark Horse and Oni producing quality stories
In terms of hedonic value, comic companies continued to play heavily on the continuity of established characters focusing on escapist value, publishing metafictional narratives about the “universes” in which the characters inhabited. On the flipside, the concept of continuity “reboots” popularized at the time made it easier for readers to relate to these characters, thereby fostering role-projective behavior.
Cross-media adaptations of comic IP’s flourished following the success of Tim Burton’s 1989 Batman film, and the Spider-Man, X-Men, Superman and Batman animated series. Comic IP’s became a boon to consumer product licensors who capitalized on high visibility of comics characters in other media. IP ownership was also a major force in the image breakaway, as the Image deal gave creators full rights to their own IP. However, much of the IP created by OImage was hyperviolent rip-offs of existing superhero comics, and much of it the IP weak in terms of it being a “brand.” There were some exceptions, however: Todd McFarline’s Spawn, Mark Silvestri’s Witchblade and The Darkness, and Sam Keith’s Maxx all became popular enough to warrant numerous cross-media adaptations of their own.
The two bubbles, combined with the distributor wars (which affected retailer discounts and cashflow), put many comic shops out of business. This decrease in the number of comic shops, which served as a place of the perpetuation of comics culture, hurt the culture. However, conventions continued to grow, and the development of the internet allowed the web to be a place for comic fans to network with each other.
These Characteristics and the Postmodern Age of Comics
The new millennium saw a variety of rapid changes to the comic book industry, and is the primary focus of the thesis. The first major shift occurring during this decade occurred in the distribution system, with a major focus away from single issues sold in the direct market to graphic novels and collected editions sold through mass market bookstores. The second major shift was the growth in the popularity of comic book movies as source material for feature films following the success of the X-men and Spider-man film franchises.
Each of these shifts means different things for comic books. In terms of entertainment quality, these effects are generally positive. By breaking the direct market monopoly on comics, mass marketers are holding publishers to a higher creative standard, which means that comic companies are encouraged to break creative boundaries, enter new genres and experiment with new formats. As a result these comics are more “creative” and, as such, are more risky then their direct market counterpart, which could sell relatively formulaic stories and rely on a solid base of superhero fans to purchase them. However, this graphic novel popularity is leading to a glut of trade paperbacks of repackaged direct market-focused material, and so, there is currently a period of adjustment where publishers are learning how to cater to this new mass market.
In terms of hedonic value, much of the growth in hedonic value for comics relies on the reader’s knowledge of continuity, which is difficult to do in the mass market. However, comic companies still cater to these fans, and continuity and escapist-heavy comics are still a major part of the direct market. In terms of role-projective hedonic behavior, mass market comics are under heavy competition by manga, which caters to younger fans and women, and is more suited to role-projective hedonic behavior than most mainstream American comics.
These two shifts also have different changes to the fan culture. While the first shift stands in opposition to the direct market mentality of producing “for fans,” it is relatively harmless to comic cultures qua comic stores, as these stores weren’t good at catering to the mass market anyway. The second shift is more ingrained in the instiutions of comic culture: part of what makes comic book IP’s so valuable to media companies is the fact that they’ve been “proven” by their acceptance within the fan community, which, through their normal activities as fans, serves to pick out the best stories, characters, and concepts for translations. Media companies also serve to perpetuate the institutions of fan culture by working comic conventions into their promotional efforts by renting out large, flashy booths, thereby making many more conventions possible.
In terms of intellectual property for cross-media licensing, the popularity of comic based media has made comics the source for intellectual property for the creation of both successful films and what Wolf calls “hits.” Besides putting movie tie-in comics in bookstores, however, there isn’t much that the first shift plays into this situation. In terms of consumer product licensing, the growth of movies means that comic licenses are incredibly valuable for consumer product licensors. However, because movies are much higher-profile than comics, many of those licenses utilize the likenesses of the movie version of the characters, rather than the comic versions. It should be noted that these movie versions of characters are necessarily different than their comic versions, as these copyrights are shared between the comic companies and movie producer/distributor. As a result, movie versions need to be distinct for revenue purposes, leading to less brand synergy between the films and the comics. This situation, combined with the high profile of comic IP’s, have driven the shift of greater organizational intergration in order to reduce the costs associated with cross-media adaptation and associated consumer products licensing—Marvel recently was purchased by Disney, and Warner Bros. reorganized DC.
Tags: Academic Writing, comics, Industry, thesis
